Bias and Confounding Section
STROBE asks observational-study reports to describe efforts to address potential sources of bias and to explain statistical methods used to control for confounding, making both design-stage and analysis-stage safeguards reportable. Bias and confounding are not interchangeable, and confounding is not equally applicable to every research design. A standalone heading is optional; the key requirement is transparent reporting in the appropriate Methods or limitations context.
A Bias and Confounding section describes important bias risks, the steps taken to reduce them, and how confounding was handled when confounding is relevant to the study design.
Key details
Important caveats
Scope Boundary
Bias and confounding are not interchangeable, and confounding is not equally applicable to every research design. A standalone heading is optional; the key requirement is transparent reporting in the appropriate Methods or limitations context.
Further guidance
Content
Name the main sources of bias that could affect the study, describe design or analysis steps used to address them, and identify confounder-selection or adjustment methods when those methods were actually used.
Purpose
A Bias and Confounding section describes important bias risks, the steps taken to reduce them, and how confounding was handled when confounding is relevant to the study design.
Sources and evidence
Sources are shown with the role they play in this guide. Historical or style-sensitive claims are kept within the evidence boundary described above.
- Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (opens in a new tab)PLOS Medicine / STROBE Initiative · Primary reporting-guideline evidence for observational-study setting, study size, bias, participant flow, and statistical handling including missing data and confounding.